DIFFUSION IN BIOFILMS
 
 

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References

  
  
1.  Bailey, J., and D. Ollis. 1986. Biochemical engineering fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.

 

   2.  Brown, S. M., M. L. Howell, M. L. Vasil, A. J. Anderson, and D. J. Hassett. 1995. Cloning and characterization of the katB gene of Pseudomonas aeruginosa encoding a hydrogen peroxide-inducible catalase: purification of KatB, cellular localization, and demonstration that it is essential for optimal resistance to hydrogen peroxide. J. Bacteriol. 177:6536-6544. [Abstract]

 

   3.  Costerton, J. W., Z. Lewandowski, D. de Beer, D. Caldwell, D. Korber, and G. James. 1994. Biofilms, the customized microniche. J. Bacteriol. 176:2137-2142. [Medline]

 

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   5.  Davies, D. G., M.  R. Parsek, J. P. Pearson, B. H. Iglewski, J. W. Costerton, and E. P. Greenberg. 1998. The involvement of cell-to-cell signals in the development of a bacterial biofilm. Science 280:295-298. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

   6 de Beer, D., R. Srinivasan, and P. S. Stewart. 1994. Direct measurement of chlorine penetration into biofilms during disinfection. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:4339-4344.[Abstract]

 

   7.  de Beer, D., P. Stoodley, and Z. Lewandowski. 1997. Measurements of local diffusion coefficients in biofilms by microinjection and confocal microscopy. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 53:151-158. [CrossRef]

 

   8.  de Beer, D., P. Stoodley, F. Roe, and Z. Lewandowski. 1994. Effects of biofilm structure on oxygen distribution and mass transport. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 43:1131-1138.
 

   9.  Dockery, J. D., and J. P. Keener. 2001. A mathematical model for quorum sensing in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Bull. Math. Biol. 63:95-116.[CrossRef] [Medline]
 

  10.  Han, P., and D. M. Bartels. 1996. Temperature dependence of oxygen diffusion in H2O and D2O. J. Phys. Chem. 100:5597-5602. [CrossRef]

 

  11.  Harmsen, H. J. M., H. M. P. Kengen, A. D. L. Akkermans, A. J. M. Stams, and W. M. de Vos. 1996. Detection and localization of syntrophic propionate-oxidizing bacteria in granular sludge by in situ hybridization using 16S rRNA-based oligonucleotide probes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:1656-1663. [Abstract]

 

  12.  Hermanowicz, S. W. 2001. A simple 2D biofilm model yields a variety of morphological features. Math. Biosci. 169:1-14. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  13.  Horvath, A. L. 1985. Handbook of aqueous electrolyte solutions: physical properties, estimation and correlation methods. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.

 

  14.  Jackson, D. W., K. Suzuki, L. Oakford, J. W. Simecka, M. E. Hart, and T. Romeo. 2002. Biofilm formation and dispersal under the influence of the global regulator CsrA of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 184:290-301. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

  15.  Kreft, J.-U., C. Picioreanu, J. W. T. Wimpenny, and M. C. M. van Loosdrecht. 2001. Individual-based modeling of biofilms. Microbiology 147:2897-2912. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

  16.  Longsworth, L. G. 1955. Diffusion in liquids and the Stokes-Einstein relation, p. 225-247. In T. Shedlovsky (ed.), Electrochemistry in biology and medicine. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.

 

  17.  MacLeod, F. A., S. R. Guiot, and J. W. Costerton. 1990. Layered structure of bacterial aggregates produced in an upflow anaerobic sludge bed and filter reactor. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 56:1598-1607. [Medline]

 

  18.  Mason, C. M., and J. B. Culvern. 1949. Electrical conductivity of orthophosphoric acid and of sodium and potassium dihydrogen phosphates at 25°C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 71:2387-2393.

 

  19.  Okabe, S., T. Itoh, H. Satoh, and Y. Watanabe. 1999. Analyses of spatial distributions of sulfate-reducing bacteria and their activity in aerobic wastewater biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:5107-5116. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

  20.  Okabe, S., H. Satoh, and Y. Watanabe. 1999. In situ analysis of nitrifying biofilms as determined by in situ hybridization and the use of microelectrodes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:3182-3191. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

  21.  O'Toole, G. A., K. A. Givvs, P. W. Hager, P. V. Phibbs, Jr., and R. Kolter. 2000. The global carbon metabolism regulator Crc is a component of a signal transduction pathway required for biofilm development by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. J. Bacteriol. 182:425-431. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

  22.  Perry, R. H., and C. H. Chilton. 1973. Chemical engineers' handbook, 5th ed. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, N.Y.

 

  23.  Picioreanu, C., M. C. M. van Loosdrecht, and J. J. Heijnen. 1998. Mathematical modeling of biofilm structure with a hybrid differential-discrete cellular automaton approach. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 58:101-116. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  24.  Ramsing, N. B., M. Kuhl, and B. B. Jorgensen. 1993. Distribution of sulfate-reducing bacteria, O2, and H2S in photosynthetic biofilms determined by oligonucleotide probes and microelectrodes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 59:3840-3849. [Abstract]

 

  25.  Redfield, R. J. 2002. Is quorum sensing a side effect of diffusion sensing? Trends Microbiol. 10:365-370. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  26.  Robinson, R. A., and R. H. Stokes. 1959. Electrolyte solutions. Academic Press, Ltd., London, England.

 

  27.  Santegoeds, C. M., T. G. Ferdelman, G. Muyzer, and D. de Beer. 1998. Structural and functional dynamics of sulfate-reducing populations in bacterial biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:3731-3739. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

  28.  Sauer, K., A. K. Camper, G. D. Ehrlich, J. W. Costerton, and D. G. Davies. 2002. Pseudomonas aeruginosa displays multiple phenotypes during development as a biofilm. J. Bacteriol. 184:1154.

 

  29.  Schramm, A., L. H. Larsen, N. P. Revsbech, N. B. Ramsing, R. Amann, and K.-H. Schleifer. 1996. Structure and function of a nitrifying biofilm as determined by in situ hybidization and the use of microelectrodes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62:4641-4647. [Abstract]

 

  30.  Sivakanesan, R., and E. A. Dawes. 2000. Anaerobic glucose and serine metabolism in Staphylococcus epidermidis. J. Gen. Microbiol. 118:143-157.

 

  31.  Sternberg, C., B. B. Christensen, T. Johansen, A. T. Nielsen, J. B. Andersen, M. Givskov, and S. Molin. 1999. Distribution of bacterial growth activity in flow-chamber biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 65:4108-4117. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

 

  32.  Stewart, P. S. 1996. Theoretical aspects of antibiotic diffusion into microbial biofilms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 40:2517-2522. [Abstract]

 

  33.  Stewart, P. S. 1998. A review of experimental measurements of effective diffusive permeabilities and effective diffusion coefficients in biofilms. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 59:261-272. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  34.  Stewart, P. S., G. A. McFeters, and C.-T. Huang. 2000. Biofilm control by antimicrobial agents, p. 373-405. In J. D. Bryers (ed.), Biofilms, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.

 

  35.  Stewart, P. S., Rayner, J., Roe, F., and W. M. Rees. 2001. Biofilm penetration and disinfection efficacy of alkaline hypochlorite and chlorosulfamates. J. Appl. Microbiol. 91:525-532. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  36.  Stoodley, P., D. de Beer, and Z. Lewandowski. 1994. Liquid flow in biofilm systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 60:2711-2716. [Abstract]

 

  37.  Walters, M. C., F. Roe, A. Bugnicourt, M. J. Franklin, and P. S. Stewart. Contributions of antibiotic penetration, oxygen limitation, and low metabolic activity to the tolerance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms to ciprofloxacin and tobramycin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., in press.

 

  38.  Wentland, E. J., P. S. Stewart, C.-T. Huang, and G. A. McFeters. 1996. Spatial variations in growth rate within Klebsiella pneumoniae colonies and biofilm. Biotechnol. Prog. 12:316-321. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  39.  Whiteley, M., M. G. Bangera, R. E. Bumgarner, M. R. Parsek, G. M. Teitzel, S. Lory, and E. P. Greenberg. 2001. Gene expression in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Nature 413:860-864. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  40.  Wood, B. D., M. Quintard, and S. Whitaker. 2002. Calculation of effective diffusivities for biofilms and tissues. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 77:495-516. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  41.  Xu, K. D., M. J. Franklin, C.-H. Park, G. A. McFeters, and P. S. Stewart. 2001. Gene expression and protein levels of the stationary phase sigma factor, RpoS, in continuously fed Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 199:67-71. [CrossRef] [Medline]

 

  42.  Xu, K. D., P. S. Stewart, F. Xia, C.-T. Huang, and G. A. McFeters. 1998. Spatial physiological heterogeneity in Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm is determined by oxygen availability. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64:4035-4039. [Abstract/Free Full Text]

  43Stewart, P.S.  2003.  Diffusion in biofilms. J. Bacteriol. 185(5): 1485-1491.

 

 

  Tables

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Table 4-1: Diffusion coefficients in water at 25°C
Solute 10-6 Daq in cm2/s Reference or source
 Hydrogen 45.0  4
 Nitrogen 18.8  4
 Oxygen 20.0 10
 Carbon dioxide 19.2  4
 Methane 14.9  4
 Ethane 12.0  4
 Propane   9.7  4
 Benzene 10.2  4
 Hydrogen sulfide 16 22
 Formic acid 14.1  4
 Acetic acid 12.1  4
 Propionic acid 10.6  4
 Butyric acid   8.7 27
 Benzoic acid 10.0  4
 Succinic acid   9.4  4
 p-Aminobenzoic acid   8.4  16
 Fluorescein   5.4 _a
 Methanol  15 16
 Glycerol    9.4 22
 Urea 13.8  4
 Glucose   6.7  16
 Sucrose   5.2  4
 Lactose  4.9 22
 Maltose  4.8 22
 Raffinose  4.3 16
 Glycine 11 16
 Glutamine  7.6 16
 Alanine  9.1 16
 Leucine  7.3 16
 Serine  8.8 16
 Valine  8.3  4
 Asparagine  8.3 16
 Threonine  8.0 16
 N-(3-Oxododecanoyl)-L-
 homoserine lactone
 4.9 _a
 N-Butyryl-L-homoserine
 lactone
 7.2 _a
 Li+ 10.3 16
 NH4+ 19.7 13
 Cl- 20.3 13
 HCO3- 11.8 26
 SO42- 10.6 26
 H2PO42-   8.8 18
 HPO4  7.6 18
a_, estimated from the Wilke-Chang correlation as explained in reference 22.
 
   

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Table 4-2: Temperature dependence of
aqueous diffusion coefficients
DT/D25 is the ratio of the diffusion coefficient at one temperature to the diffusion coefficient at 25°C.
(°C)
Temperature
DT/D25 (°C)
Temperature
DT/D25
  0 0.457    
  1 0.474 31 1.163
  2 0.492 32 1.192
  3 0.510 33 1.221
  4 0.528 34 1.250
  5 0.547 35 1.279
  6 0.566 36 1.309
  7 0.586 37 1.339
  8 0.606 38 1.370
  9 0.626 39 1.401
10 0.647 40 1.432
11 0.668 41 1.464
12 0.689 42 1.496
13 0.711 43 1.528
14 0.733 44 1.561
15 0.756 45 1.594
16 0.779 46 1.628
17 0.802 47 1.661
18 0.826 48 1.696
19 0.849 49 1.730
20 0.874 50 1.765
21 0.898 51 1.800
22 0.923 52 1.836
23 0.948 53 1.872
24 0.974 54 1.908
25 1.000 55 1.944
26 1.026 56 1.981
27 1.053 57 2.019
28 1.080 58 2.056
29 1.107 59 2.094
30 1.135 60 2.133